Era Information 

Time: 770 B.C.-256B.C.

Location of Capital:Disunity of the country 

Emperors: Five hegemony in Spring and Autumn, Seven Kings in Warring States

Replaced by: Qin Dynasty

Introduction

Although there were many civil strife and in the period of disunity, the Spring and Autumn period saw a great prosperity in cultural movement and development. It has been called the golden age in China’s history.

The civil war of the period was leaded by the different interest of each empire. Each empire tried its best to seize more fields and more people. This situation was also good for the unity of the whole country. But too many wars and civil strife made the people in the period live a sad and depressed life. It was in the depressed society, the reform and new life is eagerly needed by most of people. So there appeared the hundred schools of thoughts in the period.

The regional lords wanted to build a strong and a big administrative are so that they can collect more taxation and build a strong army to defeat other regional lords.

In order to develop the economic and military as well as the production, the regional lords need a lot of skilled and literature officials and excellent teachers to help them. Thus the great thoughts and ideas were produced in the situation.

The uses of iron have improved the production of agriculture and the iron was also used to forge as weapons.Numerous of Walls were built around the cities and the board of every country.

It is in the situation that many philosophies were produced to conduct and analyze the disunity conditions. The hundred schools of thoughts were appeared under the great situations.

The thoughts and the discipline of the great thinkers influenced the Chinese history until today.

Hundred Schools of Thought

The Hundred Schools of Thought is a general abbreviation of various academic and ideological genres and their representative figures. Philosophers refer to Confucius and Mencius, and Xun Zi of Confucian School, Lao Zi of Taoism, and Han Feizi of School of Law. The Hundred Schools mean different schools of thoughts and ideas. After West Han Dynasty, Philosophers after Spring and Autumn can be summarized as disciples of Confucian School, Taoism, School of Yin-yang, School of Law, School of Ming, Mohism, School of Zong and Heng, Shool of Za, School of Nong (agriculture), as well as School of Xiaoshuo (novel). Except School of Xiaoshuo, the others are generally known as Ten Genres and Nine Schools. The most important include Confucian School, Taoism, School of Yin-yang, School of Law, School of Ming, and Mohism.

Confucian School: is one of the most important schools of thought in the Warring States. It admires Confucius as its master and has the Six Skills as its standards. This school emphasizes liyue (civilized and enlightened behavior) and renyi (benevolent and upright character), advocates zhongshu (loyalty and catholicity) and golden mean, and upholds dezhi (rule by moral education) and renzheng (enlightened governance). It focuses on moral and ethnic education as well as self-cultivation of character. Confucian School values the function of education very much. It holds that the development of education and less punishment is a necessity to national stability and happy life. It believes that everyone should receive education and enlightenment so that the whole nation would become civilized and its people have high morality. On politics, this school proposes that the head of the country should govern his nation with rites and morality. It also suggests the recovery of Zhouli Thought which is considered as an ideal way of implementing politics. In the period of Warring States, the School of Confucius was divided into eight genres, the most important of which were school of Mencius and Xun Zi.

Taoism: Like Confucian School, Taoism is one of the most schools of thought in the Warring States period and it is also called the School of Morality. This school takes the ideas of Taoism as its theoretical basis, and use Taoism to explain the nature, the source, and composition and the changes of the earth. It believes everything in the nature appears automatically and there is no god or immortal that has the power of control anything. Therefore it advocates that we should let everything as what it is, follow what is going to happen, live without desire, and cultivate heart calmly. People should take an amiable and reasonable way to persuade others rather than resorting to force. On politics, this school upholds ruling a nation with enlightenment instead of military force. After Lao Zi, Taoism developed into several groups and the most famous four are School of Zhuang Zi, Yang Zhu, Song Yin, and Huang Lao.

Mohism: The theoretical basis of this school is benevolent to and benefiting all. It suggests that people should love others as love themselves; as long as people in the country can love each other, they can benefit each other in communication. In terms of political governance, Mohism upholds co-existence and harmonization rather than exclusion; on economic development, it emphasizes consolidation and preservation; on thought, it believes the existence of and worships God. At the same time, this school proposes Feiming, which means people should survive and prosper through hard work and efforts. Mohism has strict regulations and secret organizations. Its members are mostly from the middle and lower social classes. It is said all of them are very capable, and courageous enough to anneal their characters. When Mo Di died, Mohism developed into genres. In the late period of Warring States, they evolved into two: one emphasized Ideology, Logistics, Math, Optics, and Mechanics, and was therefore called Late Mohism; the other turned into the paladins in Qin and Han Dynasties.

The Use of Ironware and Cow Force

For the use of iron equipment, the productivity of spring and autumn period could be improved greatly. Besides the technology of smelting, the smelting of pig iron has been used by people in this period. The use of the iron equipment makes it possible to assert more fields in large scale and accelerates the appearance of private field. At the same time, it can provide much sharper tool for handicraft industry.

The technology of melting in the Spring and Autumn period had a high level. This can be proved by the unearthed foundry china in Houma. This showed the high level and big scale in bronze melting and mining.

In the later years of Spring and Autumn Period, there were iron money used in the market. The uses of iron money lead to the development of commerce and handicraft industry. 

Confucius

Confucius (５５1B.C.—４７９B.C.), was a great thinker and great educator in China’s history. His thoughts and ideas have influenced the whole history of China and Chinese people. Until today, his thoughts and ideas were well known in China and abroad.

It has been said that Confucius had more than 3,000 students, of them 72 were excellent students who famous at that time. He traveled to 14 countries with his students and wrote Shi, Shu, Li, Yue, Zhou Yi and Chun Qiu. His works are read and studied by millions of students and professors to day. His works were also translated to many languages and learned in different countries.

Confucius was eager to learn when he just was a young boy. Because his family was very poor, he had done many jobs to support himself. For example he was once to be a foodstuff staff and a cowboy. 

When he was only 15 years old, he was eager to learn and always to learn from others. He said there will be my teacher when I walked with others.

It is his eagerness for knowledge and new things that lead to his great thoughts of his works.His thoughts were valuable in conducting education and government building and the social life. Confucius was a great thinker and philosopher and educator who earned the expectation of most Chinese people.

Brief Introduction of Laozi

Laozi lived in 6th Century BC according to the Chinese tradition. He was the great philosopher of ancient China and was respected by millions of Chinese today. As the creator of Taoism, Laozi was famous for its religion and his great work Daodejing. Laozi and his religion Taoism had an important role in the spiritual world and culture of Chinese. He was regarded as the god of religious form of Taoism.Laozi was also called Lao Ran (Lao Dan means long ear in Chinese).

Laozi's great book, Daodejing was devided into two parts. One part is called Daojing, while the other is called Dejing. Daojing mainly discussed and explain the ancient Chinese philosophy. Dejing mainly explained the politics and military affairs. Daodejing, putting forward metaphysics systematically for the first time to the real formation of Taoist school of thought, plays a key role in the formation of ancient Chinese philosophy. Early in the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD), the ruling class practiced a kind of so-called Huanglao (Emperor Huang and Lao Zi) politics, characterized by Taoist doctrine of governing by doing nothing, and realized a quick economic instauration, known as Reigns of Wen & Jing (prosperity in the period of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing) in history.

Brief Introduction of Meng Zi-Mencius

Meng Zi, known as Mencius, was born about 370BC in today's Shandong Province. Shortly after he was born, his father died, and he was subsequently brought up by his mother alone. Mencius served as counselor to princes in the state of Qi and later visited other states to advice on government. He received substantial gifts for this, which he considered proper for a man of his abilities (an opposing school of philosophy under Mo Zi did not). After about 15 years he appears to have concluded that while treated with respect, he was offering advice that was ignored. Many of the kings and princes at that time were interested in pleasure and conquest rather than theories of good government. Mencius therefore retired from active life and turned to philosophy and the compilation of the substantial book that bears his name.

Mencius was a Confucian disciple who made major contributions to the humanism of Confucian thought. Mencius declared that man was by nature good. He expostulated that a ruler could not govern without the people's tacit consent and that the penalty for unpopular, despotic rule was the loss of the "mandate of heaven". Mencius was the synthesizer and developer of applied Confucian thought. Before he died at the age 84, he was said to have completed the editorial work of Confucius.

Mencius argued that all men have a mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others. From this it follows that the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame and dislike, the feeling of modesty and complaisance, and the feeling of approving and disapproving are all essential to a human being. Mencius asserted that the feeling of commiseration is the principle of benevolence. The feeling of shame and dislike is the principle of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and complaisance is the principle of propriety. The feeling of approving and disapproving is the principle of knowledge. Mencius concluded that Men have these four principles just as they have their four limbs. When men having these four principles, yet say of themselves that they cannot develop them,they play the thief with themselves.

Brief Introduction of Xun Zi

Xunzi, also named Xun Kuang, was born in the State of Zhao in the Warring States Period (475-221BC). He traveled from his native Zhao to the state of Qi when only fifteen to pursue his studies. Soon he became a well-recognized scholar and rose to official posts, including that of magistrate.

Xunzi developed a new version of Confucianism in the period 298-238BC. He can be contrasted with the other great follower of Confucius, Mencius, who saw people as inherently good and governed by a moral sense. Active in the time of instability and disruption in Chinese history known as the Warring States, Xunzi saw people as having an inherently evil nature that required control by education, ritual and custom. His pupil, Han Feizi developed this philosophy further by elevating law to a position of supreme importance in governing human affairs. Han Feizi's presumed influence on the Emperor Qinshihuang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), in such activities as cruel punishments and the attempt to destroy China's past by the burning of books, left a negative impression that reflected back on his teacher. As a result, the work of Mencius for many centuries received much more attention than that of Xunzi.

In spite of his gloomy view of humanity's original nature, Xunzi saw people as perfectible through education and through application of the proper rules of conduct. People were born with a conflicting mixture of desires that if allowed unfettered reign would lead to disaster. It was the role of society, through its culture (including music) to impose order onto the chaos of desires and channel them into constructive, rather than destructive, effort. He held that human intelligence created social organizations in order to bring divergent human impulses into harmony. To this end, Xunzi stressed not only the importance of education but also the correct use of words, often providing extensive lists of definitions. He is also noteworthy in his view that heaven is not the realm of mystical forces embodying ethical principles (Mencius' view) but is part of the realm of nature, indifferent to humans.

Xunzi developed his theories in a logical manner in his master piece Xunzi of some 32 chapters. These might be regarded as the first collection of philosophical essays in China -- as distinct from fragments (analects) or records of conversations.

Brief Introduction of Zhuang Zi

Zhuangzi’ is the name of the second foundational text of the Daoist philosophical and religious tradition and the name of the putative author of this text, who early historical sources say flourished between about 350 and 300 B.C.E. As one of the two most popular Daoist texts in the Chinese tradition, the Zhuangzi has been the subject of more than sixty major East Asian commentaries since the third century C.E., some of which contain philosophically significant interpretations of the text. The most important of these are the commentary by Guo Xiang, which focuses on his understanding of Zhuangzi's philosophy of spontaneity, the commentary by Cheng Xuanying (ca. 620-670), a religious Daoist master with strong interests in emptiness theory, and commentaries by the following Sung and Ming dynasty literati scholars: Wang Pang (1042-76), Lin Xiyi (ca. 1200-73), Lo Miandao (ca. 1240-1300), and Jiao Hong (1541-1620).

None of these has been fully translated into English and modern studies of them in any language are few, thus yielding a fertile field for future research. The existence of these commentaries demonstrates the great popularity of the Zhuangzi among Chinese literati who saw within it support for a withdrawal from a life of social and political service into a private life of reclusion and self-cultivation. If Confucianism came to stand for the foundational philosophy of this ethos of self-sacrifice, the Daoism of the Zhuangzi came to stand for its opposite, the escape from societal pressure into an individual path of freedom. While thus important to literati scholars, the work was also significant for Daoist religious practitioners who often took ideas and themes from it for their meditation practice, for example Sima Chengzhen's ‘Treatise on Sitting and Forgetting’ (ca. 660 C.E.) (Kohn 1987).

What we know of the philosophy of Zhuangzi comes primarily from this work but readers of translations of the received recension (Watson, Graham 1981, Mair 1998) should be aware of the following provisos.

First, the received recension contains thirty-three chapters and is not the original recension of the text. Guo Xiang (d. 312 C.E.) revised a fifty-two chapter original recension first listed in Imperial bibliographies circa 110 C.E. by removing material he thought was superstitious and generally not of philosophical interest to his literati sensibilities. He appended a philosophical commentary to the text that became famous and within four centuries his shorter and snappier expurgated recension became the only one known. This recension is traditionally divided into three sections: ‘Inner Chapters’ (1-7), ‘Outer Chapters’ (8-22), ‘Miscellaneous Chapters’ (23-33). This division is quite old and is likely to have been part of the original recension.

Second, the Zhuangzi text is clearly not the work of a single author and it is difficult to affix definitive authorship to any one person. At the very least there are five authorial voices best summarized by A.C. Graham: the historical Zhuangzi, later followers of Zhuangzi, followers influenced by the individualist thinker Yang Zhu, a ‘Primitivist’ Daoist author whose ideas are akin to those of the Daode jing, and the ‘Syncretist’ Daoist authors who Graham thinks compiled the first recension of the text (Graham 1979).

While it is true that many of the philosophical insights for which this work has become renowned in China and more recently in the West are found in the ‘Inner Chapters’ that have traditionally been ascribed to the historical Zhuangzi, we cannot fully understand these ideas and their significance without grasping how they relate to the entire thirty-three chapter text and the variety of ideas it contains. In this entry we shall accept the convention that a historical Zhuangzi authored most of the seven ‘Inner chapters’ while noting that there have been questions about this attribution that are not sufficient to overturn this traditional belief.

The Zhuangzi has become renowned for a series of original insights into human nature and the nature of the cosmos and many of these are found in the ‘Inner chapters.’ These insights are communicated in a variety of literary styles: didactic narratives, poetry, and very short prose essays. Like its famous companion, the Daode jing, the Zhuangzi is grounded in the complementary ideas of Dao and De. Dao, the ‘Way,’ is an ineffable monistic principle that infuses and guides the spontaneous processes of all phenomena; De, ‘Inner Power,’ is the realized manifestation of this Way within all phenomena. Despite sharing these foundational ideas, these two Daoist works discuss them very differently. The Daode jing often presents the characteristics and features of the Way in a direct discursive analysis (e.g., DDJ 1: "The Way that can be told of is not the Constant Way"). On the other hand, the Zhuangzi often approaches the Way indirectly through narratives and poetry. Witness the following rhetorical pointing to the Way:

Brief Introduction of Hanfei Zi

Han Feizi, named Han Fei, was a prince of the royal family of Han during the Warring States Period (475-221BC). He and Li Si studied with the philosopher Xun Kuang. Li Si, who later became chancellor of the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC) under the First Emperor Qinshihuang, felt that he was not the equal of Han Fei. But Han stuttered and could not present his ideas in court, which was a serious impediment. He overcame this by developing one of the most brilliant styles in ancient China.

Han Fei saw the gradual, but constant, decline of the State of Han and tried on several occasions to persuade the king to follow different policies, but the king proved incapable of following his advice. He witnessed with increasing despair how rulers of his day were beguiled by Ru (Confucianism) and Mohist philosophers who prattled endlessly about moral virtues and by roving bands of knights-errant who performed acts of daring in contravention of the laws. Both caused the increasing disorder of society and distracted rulers from the real tasks of governing. "When the state is at peace, rulers support scholars and knights-errant, but when troubles arise they employ men of arms. Thus they support people they do not need and do not support those they do need."

Ultimately, Han Fei's works made their way to the Qin State where the king, who later became the First Emperor Qinshihuang, saw them and wanted to meet the man who wrote them. Li Si identified the writings as those of his classmate Han Fei, and Han Fei did come to Qin in 234BC. But even though the First Emperor was pleased with Han Fei's advice, he did not fully trust him. Yao Jia, who had been censured by Han Fei for his conduct, played on the suspicion that, being a member of the royal family of Han, Han Fei could never be entirely loyal to the interests of Qin, noting "that it is the nature of human feelings that he will always work for the interests of his native Han and not for those of Qin." The First Emperor accepted Yao's conclusion and had Han Fei imprisoned for a crime. Han Fei tried to defend himself, but he could not get an audience. So Li Si sent him some poison so that he could commit suicide. The First Emperor later regretted his condemnation of Han Fei and was going to pardon him, but Han was already dead.

When he died in 233, Han Fei was still a young man, but he had already established a reputation because of his brilliant writings. Some 55 of his books survive collected together in Han Feizi. His main philosophies include:

-- Having Regulations

No country is permanently strong. Nor is any country permanently weak. If conformers to law are strong, the country is strong; if conformners to law are weak, the counrry is weak... Any ruler able to expel private crookedness and uphold public law, finds the people safe and the state in order; and any ruler able to expunge private action and act on public law, finds his army strong and his enemy weak...

To govern the state by law is to praise the right and blame the wrong. The law does not fawn on the noble... To warn the officials and overawe the people, to rebuke obscenity and danger, and to forbid falsehood and deceit, nothing could match penalty. If law is definite, the superiors are esteemed and not violated. If the superiors are not violated, the sovereign will become strong and able to maintain the proper course of government. Such was the reason why the early kings esteemed Legalism and handed it down to posterity.

-- The Two Handles

The means whereby the intelligent ruler controls his ministers are two handles only. The two handles are chastisement and commendation. To inflict death or torture upon culprits, is called chastisement; to bestow encouragements or rewards on men of merit, is called commendation.

Brief Introduction of Mo Zi

The suffix of Zi in ancient China was a respectful way of addressing a sagely writer, for instance, Kong Zi (Confucius), Meng Zi (Mencius), etc. Zi is an honorable way of addressing a sagely writer. Mo Zi (470-391BC) was another great thinker in Chinese history. 

In ancient China, Mohism was an influential philosophical, social, and religious movement that flourished during the Warring States era (479-221BC). Mohism originates in the teachings of Mo Di, or Mo Zi, from whom it takes its name.

Mo Zi, or Mo Di, with his followers initiated philosophical argumentation and debate in China. They formulated China's first explicit ethical and political theories and advanced the world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare.

Central elements of Mohist thought include "all men are equal before God" and that mankind should follow heaven by practicing universal love. Advocating that all action must be utilitarian, Mo Zi condemned the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music. He regarded warfare as wasteful and advocated pacificism. Mo Zi also believed that unity of thought and action was necessary to achieve social goals. Although Moism failed to establish itself as a major school of thought, its views are said to be "strongly echoed" in Legalist thought.

Brief Introduction of Qu Yuan

Qu Yuan was a great politician and poet in the Warring States Period (476-221BC). He was born in an aristocratic family of the Chu State, one of seven powerful states at that time. His birthplace is today's Zigui County in Hubei Province.

Fully trusted by the king of the Chu State, Qu Yuan served as the chief assistant to the king. Representing progressive forces he had advocated and upheld the idea of political reforms. He carried out political reforms, set up strict legal system, and gave full opportunity to the able, all of which met with strong opposition of the decadent aristocrats.

Menaced by the threat of the Qin State, Qu Yuan advocated the alliance with other states, fighting against Qin with a combined force. The ruler of the Qin, who viewed the Chu State as the number one adversary, schemed to undermine the good administration of Chu under Qu Yuan. He sent his men to bribe the brother and favorite woman of the king of Chu, who were jealous of the authority of Qu Yuan. The two spoke ill of Qu Yuan to the king and the king took it for truth at last. Qu Yuan was exiled eventually.

In the course of his banishment, unhappy and dejected, Qu Yuan wandered the countryside and produced a great many poets, expressing his love for the country and its people, his concerns about the country and his detestation toward the treacherous persons.

On the breakthrough of the Qin army into the capital of his country, Qu Yuan threw himself into Miluo River in present Hunan Province and died with his country. At the news of his suicide, the Chu people, who held him in high reverence for his integrity and nobleness, rushed out in their boats to rescue him by boats, but failed even to find his body. To prevent his body from being eaten by fish they beat the waters furiously with their paddles and dropped rice dumplings wrapped in silk into the river.

In memory of this great patriotic poet, people made it a custom that on the day of his death, the fifth day of every fifth lunar month, a dragon boat race would be held and people should eat Zongzi, which is the glutinous rice ball wrapped up with bamboo or reed leaves. The tradition is still kept up to now, called the Dragon Boat Festival.

Qu Yuan (340-278 BC) was the first great patriotic poet in the history of Chinese literature. He composed 25 poems including Sorrow after Departure, The Nine Songs (11 pieces), Asking Heaven, The Nine Elegies (9 pieces), The Far-off Journey Divination, and The Fisherman.

Sorrow after Departure is Qu Yuan's classic work, which is also the earliest long lyric poem in China. The poem resolutely uncloaks the repulsiveness of the ruling class by deploying a series of metaphors, and at the same time portrays some upstanding models who adhere to justice, are unafraid of persecution and very devoted to their country and people. Sorrow after Departure is a romantic lyric poem with a measured realism. The form of Sorrow after Departure comes from its origins in local oral traditions, and its very concise language echoes the many dialects of the Chu State.