Era Information 

Time: 1636-1840

Location of Capital: Beijing City

Emperors: Kangxi, Yongzheng, Qianlong, Jiaqing, Daoguang, Xianfeng, Tongzhi(Cixi), Guangxu, Puyi 

Replaced by: Modern China

Introduction

Qing Dynasty, with its captial Beijing, was the last ruling of China from 1644 to 1912. Although the Manchus were not Han Chinese and were strongly resisted, especially in the south, they had assimilated a great deal of Chinese culture before conquering China Proper. Realizing that to dominate the empire they would have to do things the Chinese way, the Manchus retained many institutions of Ming and earlier Chinese derivation.

They continued the Confucian court practices and temple rituals, over which the emperors had traditionally presided.

The Manchus continued the Confucian civil service system. Although Chinese were barred from the highest offices, Chinese officials predominated over Manchu officeholders outside the capital, except in military positions.

The Neo-Confucian philosophy, emphasizing the obedience of subject to ruler, was enforced as the state creed. The Manchu emperors also supported Chinese literary and historical projects of enormous scope; the survival of much of China's ancient literature is attributed to these projects. Ever suspicious of Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population.

Han Chinese were prohibited from migrating into the Manchu homeland, and Manchus were forbidden to engage in trade or manual labor. Intermarriage between the two groups was forbidden.

In many government positions a system of dual appointments was used--the Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.

The Qing regime was determined to protect itself not only from internal rebellion but also from foreign invasion. After China Proper had been subdued, the Manchus conquered Outer Mongolia (now the Mongolian People's Republic) in the late seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century they gained control of Central Asia as far as the Pamir Mountains and established a protectorate over the area the Chinese call Xizang but commonly known in the West as Tibet.

The Qing thus became the first dynasty to eliminate successfully all danger to China Proper from across its land borders. Under Manchu rule the empire grew to include a larger area than before or since;

Taiwan, the last outpost of anti-Manchu resistance, was also incorporated into China for the first time. In addition, Qing emperors received tribute from the various border states.

The chief threat to China's integrity did not come overland, as it had so often in the past, but by sea, reaching the southern coastal area first. Western traders, missionaries, and soldiers of fortune began to arrive in large numbers even before the Qing, in the sixteenth century. The empire's inability to evaluate correctly the nature of the new challenge or to respond flexibly to it resulted in the demise of the Qing and the collapse of the entire millennia-old framework of dynastic rule.

Contribution of Li Shizhen

Li Shizhen’s father, Li Yanwen was a famous local doctor. Li Shizhen learned from his father and learned a lot from the common people. He put great efforts to search the herbage and gain lots of experience in Chinese herbage treatment. When he was 38 years old, he has been appointed to control the hospital and treatment department by Chu Wang( The king of Chu)

Three years later, he has been introduced to come into the capital and to act as the major doctor. Tai Yi was an organization for the royal court and was destroyed by the unqualified doctor. Li Shizhen only stayed there for one year and then returned home.

Li Shizhen has been checked more than 800 medical and academic books. With his rich experience and knowledge, he spend 27 years to compose his famous book, Ben Cao Gang Mu, which enjoy good fame around the world. It was also a conclusion book before the Ming dynasties.

The book has been translated to many versions. He also published other books, such as Ping Hu Mai Xue, Qi Jing Ba Mai Kao and so on.

The doctor business passed in Li Shizhen’s family from his grand father to his father and to him. His grand father and father were both famous local doctors. But the family was often treated badly by the local officals.

In order to get out of the difficulty, his father decided to send him to take part in the imperial examination for the hope that one day he can gain the fume and the power to defense his family and be a successful man. .But he often got ill when he was young. For his straightforward personality, he show no interest in the old examination forms. Since he got the degree in old dynasty, he failed in many times of examination.

After several failures, he gave up the plan of being official in government by the imperial examination. He concentrated in medicine field and he told his father about his determination to be a famous doctor.

He wrote to his father “My body like a boat in the counter current and my determination can not be changed at all. I am looking forward to your agreement and fear nothing.” Facing the cruel reality, his father awakened finally and accepts his requirement and taught him by heart. In a few years, he become a very famous doctor.

imperial examination 

The imperial examination system has lasted from Sui and Tang dynasty to Qing dynasty for selection of official members and the reserves of governing people. There are many art sections in Tang’s examination and held every years. There are only Jingshi in art section to exam of the Ba Gu Wen. While the military section checking the horseracing and weight lifting.

The imperial examination in Ming dynasty can be divided into County examination, provincial examination and Palace examination. Tongsheng first took part in the examination held by county. The qualified students were called Xiu Cai or Sheng Yuan. And then they come to Fuzhou ( bigger administrative districs) to learn more things.

The excellent students can be decided as the KeJu and then have the qualification to take part in the provincial examination. The provincial exam was held three years a time and the qualified was called Juren, who will have the qualification to take part in the exam held by the central government.

Emperor Kangxi 

Kangxi succeeded imperial throne at the age of 8 on February 17, 1661, twelve days after his father's death. He ruled during the years from 1661 to 1722 -- the longest reign on the throne in China's history, 61 years.

When he was still a child, Kangxi was quite hard-working and showed great talent in literature. Because he was too young, his father appointed four ministers to help him to administrate the country, one of whom, named Ao Bai, secretly fostered his own henchmen against the young emperor. When Kangxi was old enough to rule the nation, he cleverly smashed Ao Bai's plot.

In the course of his five tours to South China (in the years 1684, 1689, 1699, 1703, and 1707) he made painstaking efforts to inspect conservancy projects and so spurred the officials in charge to be more efficient and conscientious. He frequently singled out those who were reported as incorrupt for promotion  .

Desirous of lessening the opposition of recalcitrant Chinese scholars to the new regime, he solicited their help in the compilation of Ming-shi . In order to obtain capable scholars for this project he summoned many to complete in a special examination. He selected learned men and good calligraphers to be his personal secretaries, their office being known as the Imperial Study. Many famous works on literature and art were compiled under his order.

During Kangxi's reign, the society accumulated huge wealth and most of the time enjoyed peace and prosperity. In Chinese history, the good ruling from Emperor Kangxi's reign to Emperor Qianlong's reign was called "Kang Qian Sheng Shi", with prosperity lasting more than 100 years, and this was the last most prosperous period in ancient China.

Yongzheng Emperor

Yongzheng, titled Qing Shizong, was the 4th son of emperor Kangxi. Because Kangxi had many sons, the rivalry between each was very fierce. Yongzheng had to fight hard, and after the crown prince's failure to do his duties, Yongzheng had a chance to become the crown prince. But because of strong rivalry, this decision was never made.

When emperor Kangxi was at his death bed, he called Yongzheng over. It was rumored that he poisoned the old emperor, and added a stroke to the proclamation of emperor, that made the statement "…pass the throne to 14th son" to "pass the throne to 4th son". This rumor of course could never be proved.

After ascending the throne, he carried out a series of new policies that much benefited the development of the Qing dynasty. Just to name a few: he established the "Junji Chu" (Cabinet of Military) and weakened the power of the princes to strengthen the central power; he improved the tax law by demanding taxes according to the number of acres of land; by dispatching ministers to the minority areas, he strengthened the control overthem.

Yongzheng set up the rule of choosing successor secretly. The rule was: the emperor wrote his successor's name on two pieces of paper, then put one piece of paper in a box and had the box stored behind the stele in the Qianqing Palace. The emperor had the other identical copy with him or hidden somewhere. Upon the emperor's passing, the ministers would take out the paper in the box and compare it with the copy with the emperor. If they were deemed identical, the person whose name was on the paper would be the new emperor. Since that, there was no contention for imperial throne. Yongzheng was in power for only 13 years but he layed the foundation to the prosperous rein of Qianlong. Without Yongzheng's efforts, Qianlong could not become the emperor he was.

However, his rein was full of turbulence as the other princes were always trying to dethrone him. One time, in alliance with the Eight Kings, the 7th, 8th and 9th son of Kangxi almost dethroned Yongzheng, if it were not for the 13th prince who came to help out. But because of this event, the 13th prince died and Yongzheng lost the only brother that was close to him. Because this plot also involved his first son, Yongzheng, who did not want Qian Long to share the same tragedy as he, sent orders for the first son to commit suicide. This way, when Qian Long ascended the throne, he had no rivals.

Although Yongzheng achieved so much, because of his revival of the Wenzi Yu (suppressing of scholars and burning of books) and his cruelty, he had many bad names that survived till today. In August 1735, Yongzheng died in the Summer Palace and then was buried in the Tai Mausoleum in today's Hebei Province.

Qianlong Emperor 

Emperor Qianlong is Emperor Yongzheng's fourth son. He was born in the 50th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign (1711), and died in the 4th year of Emperor Jiaqing's reign at the age of 89. He was the sixth Emperor of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) and also the emperor who lived for the longest time in Chinese history.

Qianlong showed his talent when in his childhood. Because of this, his grandfather Emperor Kangxi liked him a lot. After setting up the rule of choosing successor secretly, Emperor Yongzheng chose Qianlong to succeed the throne without hesitation.

Qianlong was 25 years old when he succeeded the throne. He learnt his grandfather's and his father's ways of running the state affairs. And he skillfully dealt with the relationship between Manchu, Han and other ethnic minorities to consolidated imperial power. His reign was the most prosperous period of Qing Dynasty.

Qianlong was a keen poet, writer and calligrapher: he produced three collections of essays and five albums of poetry, making him one of the most prolific poets and calligraphers in ancient China. He was highly accomplished in painting and was fond of collecting cultural antiques -- there were many examples of jade carving, tooth carving, bamboo and wood carving, lacquer art, enamel and porcelain art in his imperial study. He also sponsored the compilation of Si Ku Quan Shu (Complete Collection in Four Treasuries), which is regarded as the largest series in Chinese history and a valuable treasure representing Chinese culture. He was familiar with military strategies and invented Shi Quan Wu Gong (perfect gongfu). He was fond of hunting and traveling, and traveled to Southern China six times for inspection. Almost every autumn, he would visit Wutai Mountain in the west and Confucius's Temple in the south.

Qianlong promised that he would abdicate after ruling as an emperor for 60 years, because that his grandfather Emperor Kangxi's reign lasted for 61 years, and Qianlong did not want to exceed his grandfather. In 60th year of his reign, he carried out his promise, and his son Yuyan (Emperor Jiaqing) became the new emperor. Actually, Qianlong was still running the country. A lot of important affairs was reported to and solved by him.

Qianlong took great pride in his administrative style which ushered in a period of great prosperity in the country. Emperor Qianlong's reign marked the peak of feudalism in China and, together with the reign of Emperor Kangxi, this period is known as Kang Qian Sheng Shi (the Great Prosperity of Emperor Kangxi and Qianlong). Unfortunately, however, in his old age he appointed corrupt officials such as Huo Shen, and problems of extortion and poor administration contributed directly to the decline of the Qing Dynasty.

Emperor Guangxu 

Even after he began formal rule, Cixi continued to influence his decisions and actions, despite residing for a period of time at the Imperial Summer Palace (Yiheyuan) which she had ordered Guangxu's father, the Prince Chun, to construct, with the official intention not to intervene in politics. After taking power, Guangxu was obviously more reform-minded than the conservative-leaning Cixi.

He believed that by learning from constitutional monarchies like Japan, China would become more politically and economically powerful. In June 1898, Guangxu began the Hundred Days' Reform, aimed at a series of sweeping political, legal, and social changes. For a brief time, after the supposed retirement of Empress Dowager Cixi, Emperor Guangxu issued edicts for a massive number of far-reaching modernizing reforms with the help of more progressive Qing mandarins like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao.

Empress Cixi

Empress Dowager Cixi1 (Chinese: 慈禧太后; pinyin: Cíxǐ Tàihòu; Wade-Giles: Tz'u-Hsi T'ai-hou) (29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908), of the Manchu Yehe Nara Clan, was a powerful and charismatic figure who became the de facto ruler of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years from 1861 to her death in 1908. Selected by the Xianfeng Emperor as a concubine in her adolescence, she climbed the ranks of Xianfeng's harem and gave birth to a son who became the Tongzhi Emperor upon Xianfeng's death.

Cixi ousted a group of regents appointed by the late emperor and assumed regency over her young son with the Empress Dowager Ci'an. Cixi then consolidated control and established near-absolute rule over the dynasty. She installed her nephew as the Guangxu Emperor in 1875. A conservative ruler who refused to adopt Western models of government, Cixi rejected reformist views and placed Guangxu under house arrest in later years for supporting reformers. However, after a humiliating clash with the Eight-Nation Alliance, external and internal pressures led Cixi to attempt institutional changes and appoint reform-minded officials.

Ultimately, the Qing Dynasty collapsed a few years after her death. Historians from both Kuomintang and Communist backgrounds have generally portrayed her as a despot and villain responsible for the fall of the Qing Dynasty, but in recent years professional historians have suggested that she was a scapegoat for problems beyond her control, a leader no more ruthless than others, and in fact an effective if reluctant reformer in the last years of her life.